Psychology of Crime - Offender Profiling as an Investigative Tool Volume 62- Issue 5

Irena Malinowska*

• Students M.Sc., Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Vizja’ University of Warsaw, album number: 66174, Poland

Received: July 18, 2025; Published: July 28, 2025

*Corresponding author: Irena Malinowska, Students M.Sc., Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Vizja’ University of Warsaw, album number: 66174, Poland

DOI: 10.26717/BJSTR.2025.62.009794

Abstract PDF

This article focuses on the application of psychology in offender profiling as an effective tool to support criminal investigation. It analyses key psychological aspects to identify the motivations, decision-making mechanisms and behavioural patterns of offenders. Profiling is based on the analysis of personality traits, modus operandi and situational context, which enables investigators to narrow down suspects and predict their subsequent actions. The author presents both the theoretical foundations of criminal psychology and practical profiling methods, considering an interdisciplinary approach combining psychology, forensic science and behavioural science. The effectiveness of profiling depends on a precise analysis of psychological factors such as the perpetrators’ thought patterns, emotions, personality disorders and previous experiences. The aim of this article is to provide an in-depth analysis of the perpetrator profiling process from a psychological perspective and to present its role in criminal investigations of homicide, human trafficking, kidnapping for ransom, missing persons, fires or terrorism. The authors show how psychological knowledge can make law enforcement more effective. The research looks at the psychology of offenders, their behavioural patterns and the use of profiling methods in the investigative process. In this study, the research hypothesis is that psychological profiling of offenders increases the effectiveness of investigations by allowing for faster identification of suspects and a better understanding of their motivations and mechanisms of action.

The research group consists of criminal profilers, forensic psychologists, investigators and experts in the field of forensic science who apply profiling methods in practice. An analysis of criminal case files in which profiling has been used is also included. The paper uses case study analysis, comparative research, a review of criminal psychology literature and interviews with experts involved in offender profiling.

Keywords: Criminal Psychology; Offender Profiling; Mental Mechanisms of Offenders; Behavioural Analysis; Criminal Motivations

Contemporary criminal investigation is increasingly using psychology- based tools, including offender profiling. This article on the psychology of crime - offender profiling through an investigative tool, demonstrates the importance of an interdisciplinary approach combining psychology, forensic science and behavioural science in the process of suspect identification. The aim of the study is to show the decision-making mechanisms, motivations and behavioural patterns of offenders, the analysis of which allows law enforcement agencies to take faster and more accurate operational actions. The research hypothesis assumes that the application of psychological methods increases the effectiveness of investigations conducted in criminal cases such as murder, human trafficking, abduction of a person or arson.

Psychological profiling of offenders is one of the key tools supporting modern criminal investigations. They are underpinned by the theories of criminal psychology to understand the motivational, cognitive and personality mechanisms that lead to criminal behaviour. Profiling not only allows narrowing down the circle of suspects, but also supports the prediction of further actions of the perpetrator and the interpretation of his/her behaviour in the context of the crime scene and modus operandi (B Holyst [1]). Criminal psychology as a sub-discipline of forensic psychology focuses on the analysis of perpetrators’ traits, personality disorders, cognitive patterns and motivation. In particular, it takes into account the influence of factors such as impulsivity, lack of empathy, egocentrism or a tendency to manipulation, which are often found in people with antisocial or narcissistic personalities (Pastwa-Wojciechowska [2]). These traits can significantly influence the way a crime is planned and executed. This publication will discuss the most important theories of criminal psychology that underpin the practice of profiling. Particular attention is given to cognitive-behavioural concepts, psychoanalytic concepts and socialisation theories, which together provide an interpretative framework for criminal behaviour (Gierowski, et al. [3]). The aim is to show how psychological knowledge can be applied to investigative practice, increasing the effectiveness of operational and analytical activities.

Criminal psychology provides tools to analyse criminal behaviour through the lens of personality, motivation and cognitive mechanisms. The focus is on the individual whose actions deviate from social norms and reveal patterns characteristic of certain types of offenders. It should be noted that one of the key areas is the personality of the offender. An analysis of the literature indicates that people with personality disorders of the antisocial, narcissistic or borderline type show an increased propensity for criminal actions (B. Holyst [1]). Traits such as lack of empathy, impulsivity, egocentrism or manipulativeness influence the way a crime is planned and executed. Equally important are cognitive mechanisms, i.e. the way the offender interprets reality. Cognitive distortions, such as justifying violence, blaming the victim or minimising consequences, are particularly evident in perpetrators of sexual offences and domestic violence (Pastwa-Wojciechowska [2]). These cognitive schemas allow the identification of motivation and the prediction of further actions by the offender. Criminal motivation can be internal (e.g. need for control, revenge, sexual gratification) or external (e.g. environmental pressure, economic situation). Often there is an interaction of these factors, where the offender’s personality is activated in a specific social context (Gierowski, et al. [3]). The practice of profiling also uses a typology of perpetrators, dividing them into organised, unorganised and mixed.

Organised perpetrators show a high level of control, planning and intelligence, while unorganised perpetrators act impulsively, leaving many traces (Golębiowski [4]). The psychological basis of offender profiling is the foundation of effective operational and analytical activities in criminal investigations. The integration of knowledge of personality, cognition and motivation enables the generation of accurate hypotheses about the offender, which significantly speeds up the detection process. Although profiling is not evidential, its diagnostic and operational value is invaluable, especially in highly complex cases. Contemporary practice shows that an interdisciplinary approach combining psychology, forensic science and behavioural sciences increases the accuracy of perpetrator typing and the effectiveness of prevention activities. One example of a Polish case study in which criminal profiling was applied is the case of Zdzisław Marchwicki, considered to be the so-called “Vampire of Zagłębie”. In 1972, on the order of the General Prosecutor’s Office, a forensic-criminological and psychiatric opinion was drawn up, which made it possible to profile the perpetrator with 79% accuracy of psychological and behavioural characteristics. This profile took into account, among other things. the perpetrator’s modus operandi, choice of victims, location of offences and personality traits, which significantly supported investigative efforts.

This case is often cited as the first example of the successful application of profiling in Poland, and its analysis is an important reference point in the literature on criminal psychology and investigative methods: (https://repozytorium.uni.wroc.pl/Content/140851/PDF/ 04_01_R_Jankowska_K_Lewandowska_L_Lijewska_N_Nowak_W_ Skonieczna_W_Wasikowska_P_Wypij_Efektywnosc_profilowania_w_ polskim_postepowaniu_karnym.pdf,,dostep: 13.07.2025). The case of Zdzislaw Marchwicki demonstrated the value of criminal profiling as a tool to support the identification of the perpetrator by analysing his behaviour, motivation and psychological characteristics. It represents one of the earliest and best-known Polish applications of this method, confirming its potential in solving cases of high complexity.

As the scientific literature shows, the personality of the perpetrator of a crime plays a key role in the detection process and in the analysis of the motivations and mechanisms of the individual breaking social norms. Criminal psychology indicates that criminal behaviour is often the result of enduring personality traits that influence the way an individual perceives the world, makes decisions and responds to stressful situations (Gąsiorowski [4]). Understanding the structure of an offender’s personality allows not only for more accurate profiling, but also for more effective prevention and rehabilitation measures. In the psychological literature, personality is defined as a relatively permanent set of psychological traits that determine how an individual functions in different life situations (Eysenck [5]). In the context of crime, traits such as impulsivity, egocentrism, lack of empathy, low frustration tolerance and a tendency to aggression are of particular importance (Daniszewska [6]). Studies conducted in prisons have shown that offenders differ in their personality depending on the type of act committed. For example, those convicted of sexual offences are more likely to exhibit high levels of social isolation and rejection of therapy, while theft offenders are characterised by elevated levels of paranoia (Skoczek [7]). Personality disorders, such as antisocial or borderline personality, are particularly frequently diagnosed in perpetrators of violent crime. Individuals with antisocial personality show a lack of guilt, manipulativeness and an inability to form lasting social relationships (Stanik [8]).

The borderline personality, on the other hand, is associated with emotional instability, impulsivity and a tendency towards self-destructive behaviour. In the practice of criminal profiling, the perpetrator’s personality is analysed as an element influencing his modus operandi, choice of victim and mode of action. This makes it possible to create a psychological portrait that supports operational activities and allows the circle of suspects to be narrowed down more quickly (Gąsiorowski [4]). Personality analysis of offenders is an indispensable part of modern criminal psychology. It allows not only a deeper understanding of criminal mechanisms, but also more effective profiling, rehabilitation and recidivism prevention measures. Knowledge of the personality traits of offenders enables the identification of risk factors and the design of individual intervention strategies. In the context of the increasing complexity of crime, the integration of psychological data into investigative practice becomes not only useful, but even essential. The following Table 1 presents selected personality types of criminal offenders, their psychological characteristics, characteristic behavioural patterns and related cases from Polish investigative practice. The overview shows that the structure of an offender’s personality often determines the way in which he or she commits a criminal act, and knowledge of these relationships can significantly support psychological profiling and operational activities.

Table 1: Psychological Personality Types of Criminal Offenders – Characteristics and Polish Case Examples.

Note: Own compilation based on: Stanik J M [18]. Rodzaje popełnionych przestępstw a różnice osobowościowe ich sprawców. Archiwum Kryminologii, XXIX–XXX; Pastwa-Wojciechowska B [2]. Samoregulacja i samokontrola a psychopatyczne zaburzenia osobowości. Czasopismo Psychologiczne, 14(2), 109-118; Hare R D [10]. Without conscience: The disturbing world of the psychopaths among us. Guilford Press; Gąsiorowski J [4]. Osobowość sprawcy przestępstwa i jej wpływ na proces wykrywczy. Zeszyty Naukowe Pro Publico Bono, 1(1), 51-88.

Criminal behaviour is not only the result of impulses or emotional disorders - more and more research points to the important role of cognitive mechanisms in their formation. Processes such as the way social situations are interpreted, thinking patterns, moral beliefs or the ability to anticipate consequences have a direct impact on the decisions made by offenders (Bird, et al. [9]). Understanding these mechanisms allows not only more accurate psychological profiling, but also the design of effective preventive and therapeutic interventions. It should be noted that cognitive mechanisms are the mental structures and processes that enable an individual to perceive, process and interpret information. In the context of delinquency, cognitive distortions, i.e. erroneous thinking patterns that lead to the justification of behaviour that is not in line with social norms, are of particular importance (Pastwa-Wojciechowska [2]). Examples of such distortions include: Victim blaming - the perpetrator shifts the responsibility for his or her actions to the victim. Minimising harm - believing that the harm caused is minor or insignificant. Justifying violence - treating aggression as a justified response to a situation. It should be noted that deficits in cognitive empathy, i.e. the ability to understand the emotions and perspective of others, are also often observed in offenders (Hare [10]). The lack of this ability can lead to instrumental treatment of others and a lowering of moral brakes. Another important mechanism is low anticipation of consequences, i.e. difficulty in assessing the consequences of one’s own actions.

Perpetrators of impulsive crimes often fail to analyse the longterm effects of their decisions, which is associated with limited executive control and poor emotional regulation (Cleckley [11]). The literature also points to the role of cognitive schemas formed in childhood, which may predispose an individual to deviant behaviour. Children raised in violent environments or without emotional support are more likely to develop negative beliefs about themselves and the world, which can lead to aggression and violation of social norms in adulthood (Raine [12]). From a scientific point of view, it should be stated that cognitive mechanisms play a fundamental role in the formation of criminal behaviour. Distorted thinking, empathy deficits and a limited ability to anticipate consequences form the psychological basis of many criminal acts. Their identification and analysis are essential in the process of profiling offenders, designing rehabilitation programmes and preventive measures. By integrating knowledge of cognition and emotion, contemporary criminal psychology offers increasingly effective tools for understanding and preventing crime.

Criminal profiling is an interdisciplinary investigative technique that combines elements of psychology, forensic science, criminology and behavioural science. It aims to create a portrait of the perpetrator on the basis of available data, such as the crime scene, modus operandi, victim characteristics and investigative documentation. Modern profiling is based on a set of analytical methods that allow the identification of behavioural patterns, motivations and personality traits of the perpetrator (Golębiowski, et al. [13]). One of the key tools in the profiler’s work is the analysis of case files, which provides information not only about the course of the crime, but also about the dynamics of the relationship between the perpetrator and the victim. A number of methods and techniques are used in the practice of criminal profiling, which can be divided into several main categories:

Case File Analysis

This is the primary source of data for profilers. It includes investigative documentation, interview records, crime scene inspection reports, expert reports and photographs and maps. Analysis of the file allows reconstruction of the course of the incident, identification of the perpetrator’s behaviour and assessment of his or her relationship with the victim (Wasiak [14]). Profilers pay attention to details such as the manner in which the injuries were inflicted, the choice of crime scene or the way the perpetrator moved.

Modus Operandi and Behavioural Signature

Modus operandi (MO) is the offender’s modus operandi, which may evolve over time. Signatures, on the other hand, are behaviours that are not necessary to commit a crime, but reflect the psychological needs of the offender (Turvey [15]). Analysis of these elements allows patterns to be identified and compared with other cases.

Typological Profiling

This involves assigning the offender to a specific category, e.g. organised vs. unorganised. Such classification is based on crime scene characteristics, modus operandi and post-crime behaviour (Douglas, et al. [16]).

Geographical Profiling

Uses crime location data to determine the offender’s area of operation. This technique is based on the assumption that offenders operate in a familiar environment (Canter [17]).

Interviews with Experts and Comparative Analysis

Profilers often consult forensic psychologists, pathologists or investigators. Comparative analysis involves comparing the case under investigation with similar cases in order to identify common features (Łozińska-Piekarska, et al. [18]). The methods and techniques used in criminal profiling are the foundation of effective criminal case analysis. Of particular importance is the analysis of case files, which allows in-depth reconstruction of the event and identification of the perpetrator’s characteristics. Modern profiling is based on a combination of theoretical knowledge and practical analytical tools to generate accurate hypotheses and support operational activities. Although profiling is not a substitute for evidence, its value as an investigative support tool is undeniable.

Understanding criminal behaviour requires an analysis not only of the act itself, but also of its psychological and biographical context. The perpetrators’ patterns of action, i.e. the repetitive patterns of behaviour that accompany the commission of crimes, are a reflection of their personality, motivation and previous life experiences (Całkiewicz [19]). Contemporary criminal psychology indicates that personality disorders and traumatic experiences play an important role in shaping criminal lifestyles (Gąsiorowski [4]). This subsection will discuss the interrelationship between these three areas, with a particular focus on their importance in criminal profiling:

Schemes of Action of Perpetrators

Schemes of action, also referred to as modus operandi, include the way in which a crime is prepared, executed and traces of the crime are obliterated. They are often repetitive and individual to the perpetrator, allowing them to be used in the identification process (Neighbour, 2010). The complexity and precision of the modus operandi can indicate the level of intelligence, criminal experience and personality disorders (Hanausek [20]).

The Importance of Personality Disorders

Personality disorders such as antisocial, borderline or narcissistic personality are often diagnosed in violent offenders (Stanik [8]). Individuals with antisocial personality show a lack of empathy, manipulativeness and impulsivity, which translates into a cold, instrumental way of committing crimes (Hare [10]). In contrast, people with borderline personality act under the influence of strong emotions, often in a chaotic and unpredictable manner (Pastwa-Wojciechowska [2]);

The Role of Life Experiences

Life experiences, especially those related to abuse, neglect or rejection in childhood, have a significant impact on the development of the perpetrator’s cognitive and emotional schemas. Early trauma can lead to the development of maladaptive schemas that perpetuate in adulthood and foster criminal behaviour (Oettingen, et al. [21]). Research indicates that sex offenders often exhibit patterns related to emotional deprivation, social isolation and lack of trust (Young, et al. [22]). With the above in mind, it should be noted that analysing the patterns of offenders in the context of their personality and life experiences allows for a deeper understanding of criminal mechanisms. Personality disorders influence the way an act is committed and traumatic experiences shape cognitive and emotional patterns that can lead to deviant behaviour. The integration of these three areas is crucial in criminal profiling, the design of rehabilitation programmes and the prevention of recidivism. Based on an interdisciplinary approach, contemporary criminal psychology offers increasingly effective tools for diagnosis and intervention with offenders. In particular, it finds application in investigations of homicide, kidnapping, human trafficking and terrorism, where classical detection methods prove insufficient (Gołębiowski, et al. [13]). By analysing the perpetrator’s behaviour, the crime scene and the victim’s characteristics, profilers are able to create a psychological portrait that narrows the circle of suspects and guides operational activities.

From a scientific as well as a practical point of view, it is stated that criminal profiling is most often used in murder cases, especially serial murders. An example is the Jack the Ripper case of 1888, where Thomas Bond drew up one of the first profiles of the perpetrator based on an analysis of brutal murders in the London borough of Whitechapel (Lebiedowicz [23]). In Poland, profiling played a key role in the case of Zdzisław Marchwicki, a serial killer of women in Silesia - forensic and psychiatric opinions allowed the perpetrator to be singled out with 79% trait accuracy (Wasiak [14]). In the case of kidnappings, profiling helps to determine the perpetrator’s motivation, his relationship with the victim and the likely place of detention. In the United States, psychological profiling by the FBI enabled the capture of George Matesky, known as the “mad bomber”, who terrorised New York City for years (Jankowska, et al. [24]). In Poland, profiling has been used, among others. in a child kidnapping case in Warsaw, where analysis of the perpetrator’s behaviour allowed the victim to be quickly traced. Profiling in human trafficking cases focuses on analysing the structure of criminal groups, the way victims are recruited and the dynamics of the perpetrator-victim relationship. Profilers also study the linguistic and communication characteristics of perpetrators, which allows for the identification of group leaders and their modus operandi (Wasiak [14]). In Europe, linguistic profiling has played an important role in unravelling a network of traffickers of women for forced labour.

In terrorist cases, on the other hand, profiling allows the identification of individuals susceptible to radicalisation and the prediction of potential actions. In the USA, psychological profiling has been used by the FBI in bombing cases, e.g. in the analysis of the behaviour of Theodore Kaczynski (“The Unabomber”) (Turvey [15]). In Poland, profiling has been used, inter alia. in cases involving bomb threats and extremist ideological groups (Łozińska-Piekarska, et al. [18]). From a scientific as well as a practical point of view, it is stated that criminal profiling is most often used in murder cases, especially serial murders. An example is the Jack the Ripper case of 1888, where Thomas Bond drew up one of the first profiles of the perpetrator based on an analysis of brutal murders in the London borough of Whitechapel (Lebiedowicz [15]). In Poland, profiling played a key role in the case of Zdzisław Marchwicki, a serial killer of women in Silesia - forensic and psychiatric opinions allowed the perpetrator to be singled out with 79% trait accuracy (Wasiak [14]). In the case of kidnappings, profiling helps to determine the perpetrator’s motivation, his or her relationship with the victim and the likely place of detention. In the United States, psychological profiling by the FBI enabled the capture of George Matesky, known as the “mad bomber”, who terrorised New York City for years (Jankowska, et al. [24]). In Poland, profiling was used, among others. In Poland, profiling was used, inter alia, in the case of the kidnapping of a child in Warsaw, where the analysis of the perpetrator’s behaviour made it possible to quickly find the victim.

Profiling in human trafficking cases focuses on analysing the structure of criminal groups, the way victims are recruited and the dynamics of the perpetrator-victim relationship. Profilers also study the linguistic and communication characteristics of perpetrators, which allows for the identification of group leaders and their modus operandi (Wasiak [14]). In Europe, linguistic profiling has played an important role in unravelling a network of traffickers of women for forced labour. In terrorist cases, on the other hand, profiling allows the identification of individuals susceptible to radicalisation and the prediction of potential actions. In the USA, psychological profiling has been used by the FBI in bombing cases, e.g. in the analysis of the behaviour of Theodore Kaczynski (“The Unabomber”) (Turvey [15]). In Poland, profiling has been used, inter alia. in cases involving bomb threats and extremist ideological groups (Łozińska-Piekarska, et al. [18]). The practical application of criminal profiling in investigations shows its enormous potential as a tool to support law enforcement agencies. By analysing the behaviour, motivation and personality traits of the perpetrators, it is possible not only to narrow down the circle of suspects, but also to predict their further actions. Although profiling is not a substitute for evidence, its operational and diagnostic value is invaluable, especially in highly complex cases such as murder, kidnapping, human trafficking or terrorism.

Psychological profiling of offenders is an important tool to support law enforcement activities. Its application enables not only the narrowing of the circle of potential suspects, but also an in-depth analysis of the decision-making mechanisms, motivations and behavioural patterns of offenders. Through interdisciplinary cooperation between psychologists, criminologists and investigators, it becomes possible to predict the offender’s further actions and optimise operational strategies. Analyses of criminal cases in which profiling methods have been applied confirm their usefulness as an element supplementing classical investigative techniques. On the basis of the publication by Jan Gołębiowski and Kamila Grochowska (Criminal profiling for court purposes. Controversies around usefulness), one can notice a clear increase in interest in this method in Poland at the beginning of the 21st century. In 2001, police psychologists drew up 15 psychological profiles of perpetrators, while in 2009 this number increased to 86 (Gołębiowski, et al. [25]). Unfortunately, the Police Headquarters does not provide official statistical data on the number of profiles drawn up in subsequent years, which makes it impossible to fully assess the further development of this technique in the period 2010-2025. The lack of transparent breakdowns constitutes a significant gap in the analysis of the effectiveness and scale of practical application of profiling in the domestic investigative system [26].

The conclusion of the research confirms the validity of the adopted hypothesis, according to which psychological profiling of offenders increases the effectiveness of criminal proceedings. The objective of the analysis - to present the role of profiling as a tool facilitating the identification of the offender and the understanding of his motivation - was achieved through a literature review, case studies and interviews with experts. The results indicate the need for further integration of this method into operational practice and for systematic empirical research in this area.

Research Conclusions

1. The use of psychological profiling of offenders significantly supports the effectiveness of operational activities, enabling faster narrowing of the circle of suspects and more accurate interpretation of the offender’s motivation and decision-making mechanisms.
2. The interdisciplinary analysis of the perpetrator’s personality traits, cognitive patterns and life experiences allows the creation of consistent behavioural models, which increases the accuracy of investigative predictions and supports the design of effective prevention strategies.

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